The Value of Vultures - What’s a vulture worth? A lot more than you might think.

Illustration by Kelsey King

June 4, 2014 — Editor’s note: The following is excerpted from What Has Nature Ever Done For Us? How Money Really Does Grow on Trees (2013) by Tony Juniper. In the book the author explores the economic value of nature, pointing to examples of natural services that are (or were) provided for free by nature, and which are being removed at our cost.  Juniper argues that in light of this realization we should stop treating natural systems in a destructive manner. Published here with permission from Synergetic Press. 

One bright clear morning in April 1993 I was aboard a British Airways 747 that was preparing to land at New Delhi Airport in India. As the aircraft started its final descent from about 1,000 meters, I noticed vultures. Their broad wings, with flight feathers spread out like a span of long fingers, had taken them to the height of the plane. From this vantage point their incredibly sharp vision would enable them to scan the land for the dead animals they feasted on.

Riding thermals just a few hundred meters from where I sat, the huge soaring birds flashed by the windows. It crossed my mind that one might get sucked into an engine, as from time to time they do. Aside from immediate safety worries, I was fascinated to see such a number of large birds of prey flying over a built-up sprawl of houses, roads and industry. I was impressed by their abundance — little did I know that these birds were in big trouble. About a year earlier vulture numbers in India had begun to go down — and fast.

Three different kinds of vultures are native to India and all of them had recently declined at a truly unprecedented rate. There were about 40 million vultures in India in 1993, but by 2007 the population of the long-billed vulture had dropped by nearly 97 percent. For the oriental white-backed vulture it was even worse, with a 99.9 percent drop in numbers during that same period. In other words, it had gone virtually extinct.

Source & for further read click here: Ensia

New research points to risk peak oil presents to business

The sun sets behind an oil well sited in the middle of a soybean field in 2008 near New Haven, Illinois, USA. Photograph: Scott Olson/Getty Images

For many years, the most compelling issue driving sustainability efforts among businesses, consumers, governments and activists has been climate change. We are all becoming increasingly concerned with the impacts of rising temperatures and extreme weather events on our supply chains, cities, transportation networks, agricultural industries, and lives.

We have become increasingly alarmed about the results of burning too much coal, oil and gas; the consequences of excessive emissions resulting from some of the most useful substances humanity has ever harnessed. We have identified our most important struggle – to maintain economic growth while reducing carbon emissions.

Because our concern has been first and foremost the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, we have designed and sporadically implemented economic incentives to reduce carbon emissions. We issue carbon credits to companies that emit less carbon. We offer cash to countries who don't cut down their forests.

We have trusted that oil reserves would hold out long enough for a substitute to be developed, and focused on the impending catastrophe of climate change. Peak oil theories, so common a few years ago, were relegated to the back burner as gas and oil were discovered in US shale deposits, the Artic thawed, exposing the possibility of off-polar shore wells and much of northern Alberta was transformed into bitumen mines.

Source: Guardian Sustainable Business Blog

Re-thinking Progress: The Circular Economy by Ellen MacArthur Foundation

Six “Know Thys” of Sustainability

April 26, 2013 — The challenges humanity faces today are perhaps our greatest in history. Over the next 50 years, fortunes will be gained and lost, companies will rise and fall, leaders will come and go. With so much at stake and so much to change, a properly motivated and equipped individual can have a profound impact. No matter where you come from, where you work or what your career path, sustainability gives each of us a unique opportunity to leave our mark.
With that in mind, here are six things you must know to prepare yourself for successful sustainability efforts in business. These six “know thys” can help you focus on the right areas, contribute to useful dialogue, convene the relevant players, collaborate for visionary change and deploy resources for lasting outcomes.
Know Thy Planet
Our planet is an extremely complex system of elements that interact according to the intractable laws of science. But humankind’s heavy footprint has put the planet’s natural systems (which we are a part of and depend on) out of balance. If you want to be part of the solution, you need solid grounding in how our planet functions. That’s not to suggest everyone should have a Ph.D. in geophysics. But a fundamental grasp of the principles of biology, physics and the chemistry that binds it all together, will keep us on track.
Read More @ Ensia

Sustainability leadership: lessons from indigenous traditions

In the wisdom traditions of North America's First Nations people there are many teachings that relate directly to leadership. Two of these are the Twin Trail and the Children's Fire.

The Twin Trail reflects a deep understanding of our human psychology, speaking to the primary difference between humans and our animal relatives: the capacity to make moral choices. It was described to me in a challenging encounter I had with my First Nations mentors in 1998.

"We would not trust any leader who is not committed to the Twin Trail – the inner trail of self-understanding, self-unfolding, and deepening; the outer trail of having powerful effect in the world. The Twin Trail of leadership is built upon the knowledge that very few humans can survive the accumulation of power without being corrupted by it. Hubris is the greatest challenge of all successful leaders and it grows most powerfully where there is no valuing of the inner trail. The outer trail of having effect in the world is hugely important, but without the ongoing wisdom path of the inner trail, it will inevitably become hostile to the greater good."

A leader's commitment to the Twin Trail becomes increasingly important as we progress in our careers, make money, build on our professional reputations and find ourselves admired and our opinions sought. Surrounded by evidence of our success, we become increasingly susceptible to childish fantasies, imagining ourselves as different from ordinary folk and tempted to fly too close to the sun. Many leaders have found their way to ruin via this route.

For more information on the article visit: Sustainability Leadership: lessons from indigenous traditions (guardian.co.uk)

Cities and Sustainability

The world urban population is likely to surge by 72% by 2050; from 3.6 billion in 2011 to 6.3 billion in 2050. It is expected that all of the future population growth will be concentrated around urban areas of less developed regions. Urbanisation is connected to industrialisation, modernisation and sociological practices. Since last hundred years or so people have moved from rural areas to urban to seek quality of life and economic opportunities. People believe that cities offer great opportunity for human life while minimising risks and challenges. Urbanisation has become great challenge of today; it occupies around 2 percent of world’s surface but consumes majority of the resources, it creates environmental, economic and social challenges that are difficult to address and quite complex. In 21^st century, cities have become heart of the planet. Many populated cities are at risks due to climate change. Modern cities are connected through large network of heavy infrastructures that are largely dependent upon use of automobile. Many conventional practices of today’s cities have contributed to global warming. Climate change has become reality and more natural calamities are expected to hit cities with large populations. Urbanisation has become focal point of future growth and requires in-depth and careful study of the entire system.

Challenges of Urbanisation

It was memorable moment when the world of 21^st century celebrated human population of 7 billion on 31^st October 2011 according to United Nations.  We have trebled ourselves from just over 2 billion in 1950 to 7 billion by 2011. The world of 19^th and 20^th century has seen tremendous changes that have never ever been experienced on this planet. The world has been transformed from small aboriginal communities living within the nature to villages to large cities. Cities have emerged from walking cities to transit cities and to automobile cities. Galactic transformations of landscape in last 100 years have raised numerous challenges for our future generations including other species that are living on this planet.

During the time of the agrarian civilizations, people used to live in small towns or countryside and performed their social and economic activities around their own boundaries. People walked everywhere or used animals such as horse or cow for their mode of transport to move from one place to another. World population increased exponentially from 1.6 billion to 6 billion during 20^th century resulting in greater number of workers with diminishing returns in villages or countryside small towns. People moved to larger cities in search of quality of life and to find some work to meet economic goals. According to the World Bank 52% of the world population lives in Cities and is anticipated to increase. Urban environment are attractive to outsiders and offers several benefits compared to village or country side living. City offers new opportunities, jobs, businesses, luxury, housing, transportations, organised system for people to get together and socialise, celebrate large events, participate in community activities  and many other benefits that may not be easily available in villages or countryside life. However when cities are formed with unsustainable practices and systems it creates lifelong complex problems for the entire planet. In the last one century the revolutionary waves of the industrialisation, information technology and globalisation have changed the way human lived. In developing world increasing populations and urbanisations have forced to create large cities with slums and lack of sanitations, clean drinking water, nutritious food and hygiene which then deteriorates environmental and human health. In developed world we have created large cities that are transformed from small narrow streets to large roads, big houses, outsized buildings, railway, buses and airports. Urban cities have become hungry for resources and are producing large amount of landfills from its waste stream. Urban challenges can be converted in to urban opportunities if planned sustainably but we need to understand the challenges first.

Key environmental challenges;

As cities have grown from small villages to densely populated cities in the last one and half century, it has created stress on the environment and natural resources. Cities are built consisting of human populations, buildings (residential & commercial) and transport system (public & private). Cities occupy two percent of the total world’s surface area but consume the majority of the resources and produces waste and pollution. Majority of the available water for human consumption goes to cities or used for the food or meat production to meet cities demand. About half of the water reserve is used for irrigation of food crops and the rest is for industry demand and drinking and sanitations. Uninterrupted growth of cities is contributing to climate change, deforestation and loss of biodiversity. People are constantly migrating from small towns to large cities in order to search for new opportunities, jobs and to have a better life. In developing world, people are shifting to large cities and are living in slum areas that have “life and health threatening” environment due to overcrowded shelters, poor water and sanitation quality, no drainage or garbage services provided and lack of healthcare facilities. In such situations, people are less bothered about environment. Environmental care becomes least priority; carbon pollution is generated through unsustainable methods of cooking and heating and forest is being cut for the human consumption. Wastes generated from human activities are diverted to river, water is being polluted and the same water is used for drinking by the society in many cases. Natural resources such as timber, minerals, iron and other building materials are constantly used for the development of cities. To meet the building demand of growing cities; forests are being cut, large mines are being dug and as a result contributing to global warming through deforestation and environmental pollution. Worldwide loss of biological diversity and mounting urban thirst of natural resources are contributing to unforeseen issue of water allocation and civil unrest.

Cities that are dependent upon automobiles are also large contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions and use of natural resources. Automobiles offer easy and fast mobility from one place to another thus providing the opportunity to go beyond the city centre. Suburbs in Australian cities were developed with modern town planning and land uses were segregated into zones allowing increase in travel distance and demanding for new road infrastructure contributed to clearing land and moving agricultural activities away from cities.

Key economic challenges;

World economy is highly dependent upon agricultural activities. Since last few decades globalisation has provided framework to frequently transport agricultural and animal products from one country to another. Globally grain and animal products are being made available to meet the food demand. Drought in one country or flood in another is not being felt due to increased export/import activities. Climate change is inevitable and would have far-fetched impact on global economy than one could imagine. Change in weather conditions would have enormous effect on agricultural sector. World commodity markets are vulnerable in globalised economy. Rising sea-level is another threat to world economy in terms of heavy populated coastal cities and sea transport. According to 2008/2009 “state of the world’s cities” report there are 3,351 cities situated in low elevation coastal zones that are prone to floods and tsunamis. The report also indicates that around 64 percent of those cities are located in developing regions. Any damage to coastal cities would have an enormous impact on the world economy. India and China are leading the world economy since last decade or so; any damage to their cities due to sea-level rise would have worldwide effect due to globalised network of economy. Multinational organisations that are located in heavy populated low elevated coastal cities are exposed to climate change related risks. Any impact on multinational organisations would have worldwide effect on global economy. Existing automobile network and use of oil has contributed huge amount of carbon in the atmosphere. Largely grown cities are extremely dependent on automobile use. Australian cities are heavily dependent on car use due to widely dispersed suburbs, services and employment. Key findings of IPCC report have confirmed the global surge in CO2 concentration is largely due to fossil fuel use and change of land-use including deforestations. Oil resources are at peak and demands alternative solution to urban automobile, industrial agricultural activities and others oil intensive practices. Endless use of oil threatens to add further CO2 emissions to climate change causes. Transitioning from automobile dependent cities to environmentally friendly cities faces several challenges in relation to planning, infrastructure, behavioural change and attached economic factors. Constant increase in oil prices has put strain on household’s budgets, transportation, food suppliers and global economy creating uncertainty in the market.

Key social challenges;

Globally people move to urban environment in search of quality of life. Urban environment offers many opportunities such as job, education, housing, transportation, roads and infrastructure and other human necessities. In 1990 the world’s 100 largest cities accommodated 540 million people and 220 million people lived in the 20 largest cities creating largest urban sprawl in the human history. Economic inequality, land degradation, lack of housing and other infrastructure, financial hardship, unemployment, domestic violence and many other are part of key social challenges of 21^st century urban areas. These social challenges are quite severe and complex. It requires systemic approach and much robust planning in order to offer sustainable urban environment.

In developing world rapid urban growth has created large slums accommodating population with lack of water, food, education, hygiene and other necessary services. Economic inequality and lack of resilience in case of natural disaster leaves poor population at risk. Large migration to overcrowded cities results in land pressures and requires cities to either move outwards or build high rise buildings. In most developing countries cities are spread outwards accommodating large slums with inadequate services.  Such unassisted and unplanned migration generates environmental pressure through deforestation, pollution (air, soil & water), poor health and land degradation. Less fortunate are also prone to domestic violence and social unrest. Lack of support from public services, housing, empowerment, education and wealth promotes domestic violence and social unrest. Unemployment contributes to individual stress and depression. In Australian urban cities especially in outer su

burbs families with large mortgages are constant under stress to meet living expenses; pay mortgages payments and other family expenditures. Large expenses of urban life are not always being met by many individual families and are resulting in social instability. Such issues contribute to family breakdown, broken relationship and depression amongst many.     

Conclusion:

Urbanisation would change the world’s face in 21^st century. Impacts of large urban cities are huge on environmental, economic and social aspects of human life. Future population growth would be concentrated around large cities and mainly in developing world. How are we going to plan our future cities, how are we going to modify our existing ones and how are we going to make these cities sustainable are some of the complex questions being raised from this study. There is no one solution that would work for the entire urban areas of the world. Different solution would require for different places and population based upon their geographical location and cultural expectations. Cities of tomorrow would need to be adaptable to deal with global warming that is unavoidable and would also demand various mitigation practices to reduce, avoid, or delay impacts arising from climate change.  Optimistic view of 21^st century offers great potential of efficiency in resource use in urban environment by following sustainable practices and planning. It is up to us to plan and create “sustainable cities that meets the needs of today and tomorrow without damaging the natural world or endangering the living conditions of other people, now or in the future”. 

Climate Change Policy Response – A Case of China

Climate Change Policy Response – A Case of China

Introduction

Global climate change and its adverse effects are a common concern of mankind. Ever since the industrial revolution, human activities, especially the massive consumption of energy and resource by developed countries in the process of industrialisation, have increased the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases, produced conspicuous impacts on the natural ecosystems of the earth, and posed severe challenges to the survival and development of human society (National Development and Reform Commission, 2008). The ultimate goal of the United Nations Framework convention on Climate Change is “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.” Such a level should be achieved within a “time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.” The Kyoto Protocol, which entered into force in February 2005, contains binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions on industrial countries that agreed to reduce their emissions by an average of about 5% during 2008 – 2012 relative to the levels emitted in 1990 (House & Brovkin, 2005). The issues related to climate change have received ever greater attention from the international community. China, deeply aware of the complexity and extensive influence of these issues and fully cognisant of the steps required to address the climate change (National Development and Reform Commission, 2009). As a developing country with large population, a relatively low level of economic development, a complex climate and fragile eco-environment, China is vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change, which has brought substantial threats to the natural ecosystems as well as the economic and social development of the country. These threats are particularly pressing in the fields of agriculture and live-stock breeding, forestry, natural ecosystems and water resources, and in coastal and eco-fragile zones (National Development and Reform Commission, 2008). China is now considered as a key international player in regards to climate change because (a) China has surpassed the US as the leading producer of CO2 and the amount of production is growing steadily; (b) China’s status and influence in the G77 endow it with an advantageous position developing country with significant influence in the United Nations (Ming-Teh & Liu, 2011). Demonstrating its leadership amongst developing countries, China has taken formulated and implemented a national plan for coping with climate change, and adopted a series of policies and measures in this regard. China combines the handling of climate change with its execution of its sustainable development strategy, acceleration of building a resource-conserving and environmental-friendly society and construction of a country of innovation. Overall China strives to control and mitigate the emissions of greenhouse gases and continuously enhance the capability of adapting itself to climate change. China actively participates in the worldwide efforts to address climate change, earnestly observes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol, and plays a constructive role in International cooperation in this regard (National Development and Reform Commission, 2008).

The issue of GHG emissions:

The issue of climate change poses great challenges to the future of China. China is a home to around 1.3billion people, accounting for 20 percent of the world’s total population (National Development and Reform Commission, 2008). Large and scattered population creates employment pressure and continuously increasing urbanisation process demands for more energy and resources.  Unbalanced regional economic development has created enormous income gap between rural and urban citizens. China has extreme seasonal weather conditions, its summers are hot and winters are cold. China’s ecological environment is considered to be fragile and faced with desertification, severe soil corrosions and has small area of natural wetlands (National Development and Reform Commission, 2008).The country is also vulnerable to rising sea level. China’s continuous domestic growth and ever increasing export market contributes heavily to energy intensity.  The country’s GHG emissions are growing extensively and expected to rise until 2030 with little help from policies adopted (Leggett, 2011). China has already surpassed the US in 2007 to be the world’s largest CO2 emitter due to the size of its population and economy growth (Wen, 2009).

According to U.S. Energy Information Administration China is the (U.S. EIA, 2012);

• biggest producer and consumer of coal in the world
• electricity generation is dominated by fossil fuel (particularly coal)
• world’s most populous and largest energy consumer
• second-biggest consumer of oil followed by US, and its major oil fields are at peak

Below chart provides energy consumption by China as of 2009, demonstrating heavy reliance on coal in order to generate energy.

Figure 1

Natural gas usage is at 4% and set to increase enormously as China embarks on increasing gas imports through LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) and pipelines (U.S. EIA, 2012). The above chart and the consumption patterns of fossil fuels are considered to be quite high putting China on the radar to reduce its emissions. China’s ever increasing GHG emissions are mainly due to growing energy intensive industrial activity for export market and development of new infrastructure while relying on coal as their primary energy source (Leggett, 2011).  China has been recognised as the “world’s factory” (Wen, 2009) for manufacturing majority of the products for consumers all around the world. China is producing enormous amount of products such as clothing, toys, household items, computers, electronic equipment’s, accessories and much more. In this process of manufacturing and meeting the worlds demand while growing its economy, China is taking on the CO2 emissions for rest of the world. In order to keep the prices low, negative externalities are not included in overall price structure resulting in environmental degradation of its own country and depleting resources. Chinese authority has also raised concerns over who to blame for their CO2 emissions; to rest of the world who’s products are manufactured in China and consumed in their own country or to China itself who is producing to earn income (Wen, 2009)? The question is more political and related to globalisation but it has a valuable point to consider. Greater collaborative view would be required for the entire world to work together and support China and provide transitioning to low carbon economy while meeting the world’s demand. However the consequences of  growth has contributed to various domestic issues of deforestation, contamination in local river system, soil erosions and other climate change related issues. See below graph which demonstrates China’s ever increasing GHG emissions projected up until 2035.

Figure 2 source: (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2011)

 

Policy Responses to address the issues of Climate Change;

The issue of global climate change, its impact and the role of China has been well recognised by the President Hu Jintao at the UN Climate Change Summit and in his speech he mentioned that “In the years ahead, China will further integrate actions on climate change into its economic and social development plan and take the following measures” (National Development and Reform Commission, 2009): 

• intensify effort to conserve energy and improve energy efficiency
• cut CO2 emissions per unit of GDP by 2020 from the 2005 level
• increase use of non-fossil fuels by 15% in primary energy consumption by 2020 through renewable and nuclear energy
• increase forest carbon sink through covering 40million hectares and forest stock volume by 1.3billion cubic meters by 2020 from 2005 levels
• promote green, low-carbon and circular economy and enhance R&D

The above commitments are quite promising and likely to deliver positive results if actioned accordingly and are transferred to actual policy designs.

China’s 11^th 5-Year plan emphasised on improving GHG and energy intensity between 2006 and 2010, and as per the government of china they have already reduced the energy by 20% to produce GDP during the same period (Leggett, 2011). China has taken strong steps in mitigating climate change issue since its 11^th 5-Year plan and has continued to the next steps with 12^th 5-Year Plan. According to its 11^th 5-Year plan, China has moved forward in achieving significant outcome in controlling GHG emissions through various policy measures as below (National Development and Reform Commission, 2011);

1.       Improving Industrial Structure

Traditional energy intensive industries have been the focus in this area. Automobiles, iron and steel industries guidelines are revised and restructured with suggested solutions on sound future development. Market entry requirements are more stringent for new firms that are energy intensive. Enforced export duties on coal, nonferrous metals, chemical fertilizers, steel billets and other high energy or resource intensive products. Export tax rebate policies are adjusted. Energy intensity was remarkably reduced in major industries and coal consumption for primary energy reduced by 10% (from 370 to 333 g/kwh). Developed policies focused on new and emerging industries that are innovative and clean. Service industries were accelerated with added value to its GDP from 40.3 to 43%.

2.       Energy Conservation

China has set targets in energy conservation and set-up monitoring and evaluation measures for 31 regional governments and 1000 key organisations. Strict rules have been enforced to meet these targets. China has promoted energy conservation in 10 key projects; upgrading of kilns and industrial boiler, heat and power generation, conservation of energy in electromechanical system, residual heat and pressure utilisation and implemented audit and management programs for the same. Energy conservation and use renewable energy in existing and new building structure and transportation sector was highly promoted. Energy saving technology and products are being promoted in industrial, government and public sector through government subsidies. During the same period market share of energy efficient illumination products and air-conditioned reached up to 67% and 70% respectively. Developed and promoted circular economy where the central government funded remanufacturing project for automobile industry with the capacity of 250,000 pieces. Enforced electricity pricing penalties and taxes on high energy consumable and refined petroleum products.

3.       Development of low-carbon energy

Natural gas and other clean energy resources are being developed at an accelerating rate compared with other fossil fuel sources. Financial subsidies, grid connected power generation and other subsidies are being allocated to reduce energy intensity. Natural gas production has increased from 49.3 to 94.8 billion cu m from 2005 to 2010 comparable to 170million tons of CO2. Proactively developing and utilising non-fossil energy such as hydropower, nuclear and other low-carbon energy sources supported by policy guidance. Improved pricing policy for energy generated through forestry and agriculture biomass and provided financial support to develop further similar projects.

4.       Controlling GHG emissions from other sources (non-energy)

China has done extremely well in this area through substitution technology policy where waste can be utilised in lieu of other raw material such as adding fly ash in producing cement. In many other agricultural and industrial products it has controlled various GHG emissions. The government also introduced soil organic matter advancement subsidy project to turn straw into farmland, green compost growing and added organic fertilisers. Overall improved urban waste disposing technology and designed policy on recovery of landfill gases. By 2010 methane emissions were brought under control and nitrous oxide emissions from industrial production was kept at 2005 level.

5.       Growing carbon sink

Thanks to environmental protection projects such as “shelterbelt construction project” in northeast, northwest and north china and along the Yangtze River that have contributed tremendously to act as a carbon sink. Enhanced forest stock volume and improved sustainable forest management practices. Established china green carbon fund and raised standard for afforestation investment subsidy from RMB 100 to 200 per mu.  Overall forest coverage area has increased from 18.21% to 20.36% for the period of 2005-10 resulting in increasing carbon storage capacity.

6.       Promoting low-carbon pilot projects in selective regions

In 2010, China announced national “low-carbon province and low-carbon city” pilot project. Five provinces and eight cities have been selected as part of this project. This area will receive greater focus in their 12^th 5-Year plan and will be supported with new knowledge and technologies to transform them from energy intensity to low-carbon or green economies while reducing overall GHG emissions.

Apart from the above 6 points, China has embarked upon increasing its participation in international organisation in last few years. China feels that it has a sense of responsibility in fighting with climate change and therefore has constructively and proactively participated in various international dialogues on reducing GHG emissions, CO2 emissions and driving the change from energy intensity to low-carbon economy. China participated and contributed to 2007 Bali Road Map, 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Conference and 2010 Cancun Conference.

Outcome from China’s 11^th 5-Year plan clearly demonstrates that China has understood its role at international level and the pressure to reduce GHG emissions and implement pollution abatement policies and also to cooperate with other countries through UN conferences. China is faced with critical situation where the country is faced with many issues such as geographical, political, population, economic growth and rising emission levels. Many analysts predicts that based on its current policies, growing economy and recorded GHG emissions China will continue to increase GHG emissions at-least until 2030 (Leggett, 2011). In 2010, as per China’s policy to reduce its energy intensity by 20% was short of few percentage and was achieved at 19.1%, however critics say that towards 2010 many energy managers met this goal by either stoping or slowing down their production rather than implementing effective procedure on energy efficiency (Leggett, 2011). It is also important to consider statement made in China’s white paper on addressing climate change (National Development and Reform Commission, 2008);

(Quote)

“As a developing country, China still has a long way to go in its industrialization, urbanization and modernization. To advance further toward its development objectives, China will strive for rational growth of energy demand, which is the basic precondition for the progress of all developing countries. However, its coal-dominated energy mix cannot be substantially changed in the near future, thus making the control of greenhouse gas emissions rather difficult”.

The words are quite strong and provide a clear message to the world that China has yet to grow similar to those of developed world therefore making it difficult for the country to achieve its GHG emissions target. However there is a quite promising and optimistic view on their 12^th 5-Year plan which demonstrates that China has committed to achieving its target on lowering greenhouse gas emissions. In 2009, China has committed to reduce its GHG emissions per-unit GDP by 40-45% by 2020 compared with its 2005 level (National Development and Reform Commission, 2011) through various important measures and through stricter enforcement of legal and strategic systems.

In their 12^th 5-Year plan China has gone even further to reduce its GHG emissions by 16% and provide platform for long term safe transition of its economy from carbon intensive to low-carbon economy (Leggett, 2011). In their 12^th 5-Year plan, China proposes below actions for the period of 2011 to 2015 with the objective to achieve GDP growth of 7% and promoting “inclusive growth” – lowering GDP, equal distribution of benefits, protecting the environment and removing social inequality (Wang S. , 2012). See below highlights from China’s 12^th 5-Year plan (Wang S. , 2012):

• increase investment in environmental protection up to around RMB 3 trillion over the 5 year period (majority of this will be directed to the reduction of pollution control aiming to cut by 8 to 10 percent and to decrease sulphur dioxide, chemical-oxygen demand, nitrogen oxide and ammonia nitrogen by 1.5 percent per year for the same period) 
• increase hydropower in the southwest, nuclear power development and high-speed rail network in order to meet energy intensity targets.
• increase forest area to 21.66% and stock by 600 million cubic meters while keeping minimum grain-production to 540million tonnes and reserve farmland to 1.2 million square kilometres. 
• development of 7 “strategic emerging industries”; biotechnology, new materials, next-generation IT, new energy and high-end equipment manufacturing, energy conservation and environmental protection and clean energy vehicles. 
• Beijing will use two-thirds of its budget to invest into “improving people’s livelihood” and aiming to keep population under 1.39billions while improving life span by at-least one year. 
• building or renovating around 36 million apartments for those with lower income threshold and creating pension scheme for those who live on rural areas.

These are some of the strong targets and commitments that can be seen as part of the government’s policies to reduce its GHG emissions and contribute globally to fight with the issues of climate change, land degradation, social equality, alleviate poverty and improve energy intensity from fossil fuels. However there is a long way to go before this can be achieved at a level required. The graph by U.S. EIA under figure 2 demonstrates that China will continue to use its cheaper fuel (coal) to generate electricity well beyond 2030 and will exceed all other countries in the same line. The research indicates that China will have to act faster and implement changes to reach its peak level around 2020 and follow the decline in emissions sooner rather than later (Wang & Watson, 2009). According to the report (Leggett, 2011) even if China achieves its 12^th 5-Year targets, the GHG emissions will continue to rise and there are also rising concerns around the frequency and transparency and quality of emission reports produced by the government.

To deliver greater impact and changes of their 12^th 5-Year plan, the Premier of the State Council Mr Wen Jiabao expressed below objectives that are required to achieve the set goal in regards to climate change (Jiabao, 2011);

• strengthen and consolidate the position of agriculture as the foundation of the economy 
• accelerate strategic economic restructure (growth driven by innovation focusing away from fossil fuel and energy intensity)
• strong implementation of strategy of strengthening the country through science and education and through human resource development 
• focusing on social development and well-being of our people 
• strongly enhance cultural development 
• improvement on our work of opening to the outside world (strong interaction and openness with others)

The above highlighted points from the speech will help the government of China to deliver its promise as mentioned in their 12^th 5-Year plan. The last point on opening to the world and being more clear on their reporting’s will also help the UN and other nations to understand China’s strategies, actions and implementation policies to reduce its GHG emissions.

  

Conclusion

China with its large population and ever growing economy is on the radar with its increasing emission levels. Environmental policies are in place since 1980s however they are either not followed due to lack of enforcement or not fully implemented where necessary. The overall CO2 level grew along with the economy since late 1990. In 2007, China surpassed USA in becoming largest greenhouse gas emitting country. China itself is at risk as a result of climate change events. The country’s temperature has risen in line with those of others due to global warming. China experienced over 21 winters from 1986 to 2007 (National Development and Reform Commission, 2008). The research indicates that climate change will further bring extreme weather events in China requiring protective measures. China has a fragile and complex ecology compared to other countries in same latitudes. The area of natural wetland is also comparatively small. China is exposed to sea level rise due to its 18,000km long coastline (National Development and Reform Commission, 2008). With large population and in the midst of developing and development surely the country has a long way to go to develop itself in order to provide better life to its citizens. Country is still in process of increasing its urbanisation, modernisation and industrialisation. Coal being the major source of energy and cheaply available makes it hard to forbid. According to sources (figure 2) China will utilise coal as a main source of energy means abatement of greenhouse gases will be even more difficult. Government policies will require strong enforcement and commitment to wider community around the world to divert its energy sources from fossil fuel to alternative and renewable energy sources.

China and other countries with low incomes in 1992 were given exemption from UNFCCC followed by Kyoto Protocol on quantifying GHG reduction obligations, based on the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” as per the convention (Leggett, 2011). However the goal to reduce GHG emissions cannot be achieved alone by those developed countries where China has its emissions at very high level. Since then in 2009 Copenhagen agreement were achieved and those who pledged would take some measures to reduce GHG targets and implement mitigation policies. On the other hand China as accepted its role in combating with climate change issue (National Development and Reform Commission, 2011) and accordingly delivered great results in its 11^th 5-Year plan and have developed some strong strategies for its 12^th 5-Year plan. China understands that climate change would have inevitable effect on its economy and therefore it is in the best interest of China to work on those issues and deliver effective policies.

China recognises its role at international level in response to climate change and more transparent policies, measures and reports therefore making it one of the objectives to ensure greater transparency achieved and reports are provided to international community on its work.

China will have to deliver its promise as mentioned in its 12^th 5-Year plan and demonstrate to the world its commitments in order to gain the trust and share common interest with international community. Legislation and policies needs to be strengthened and enforced to make it effective and responsible. Greater and accelerated investment on sustainable development would provide better result for the entire country and the international community.

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